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Chapter Ten

The Autumn of Christendom
I.  Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries
These two centuries were viewed as the decline in the church. The papacy played the role of a universal arbitrator between temporal and spiritual powers. This is a time of major crisis in the church because of the questioning of the pope's role in the political world; schism over the pope's role over the whole church etc... Changes were in the wind heralding a new era and a deepening of faith for many Christians.
A. The Birth of the Lay Spirit
1. The rise of national monarchies--from 1254-1273 A.D. there was no emperor in control of Europe. Spain, during this time, finally drove out the last Moslems and Spain was unified as a kingdom. Western kingdoms became states in the modern sense of the word and the hundred years war was on between France and England (1337-1453 A.D.). In their quest for power and autonomy the monarchs of these new states came face to face with the pope.
See Handout #127
See Handout #128
See Handout #129
See Handout #130
2. A significant conflict: Philip the Fair against Boniface VIII--Philip, king of France and Boniface VIII came to blows over Philip's desire to tax the church in order to increase his revenue base. Both headstrong men stood toe to toe over this dispute and the fact that Philip was tried in open court by the bishop of Pamers. Boniface threatened to excommunicate him and depose him as king. Philip sent William of Nogaret to the Vatican to threaten the pope in his own palace. This upset Boniface so much he died a month later. The idea arose that a defaulting pope could be judged by general council.
See Handout #131
3. The lay spirit--in 1324 A.D. Pope John XXII and king Ludwig of Bavaria came into open battle. The pope refused to recognize him as emperor of Bavaria and he appointed his own anti-pope. Two main ideas characterized the lay spirit: the independence of the state in the temporal sphere and the insistence on speaking of the church as the whole body of believers, not limiting it to the just the clerics. The Golden Bull written in 1356 A.D. excluded the pope from all intervention in the nomination of the German emperor and this was the symbol of the lay spirit of this time.
B. The Tribulations of the Papacy
1. The popes in Avignon--after the papacy was empty for nearly a year the divided Cardinals elected Archbishop of Bordeaux, Bertrand de Got, as pope in France. He was conciliatory with Philip and the papal states were in civil war. He never got to Rome. From 1305 to 1377 A.D. the popes never returned to Rome. From Avignon the popes were in the center of Europe and all that was happening and was a good place for communications with the whole church.
See Handout #132
a. All-consuming taxation--most of the cardinals chosen during this time were French as were the popes and this gave the impression that the church was at the service of the king of France. The popes at this time surrounded themselves with luxury and thousands of court attendants. Just the upkeep alone for the palace and the parties required substantial taxation of the people and this gave the popes of Avignon a bad name.
b. The progress of centralization--the papacy was caught in a vicious circle. Central administration required substantial resources of money. Their direct intervention in the selection of bishops grew and the old idea of bishops being elected eventually faded out. From then on men were made bishop "by the grace of God and the apostolic see". An appointment to the bishop's office meant that you gave a year's revenue to the papacy. 
See Handout #133
See Handout #134
See Handout #135
See Handout #136
2. The Great Schism (1378-1417 A.D.)--Christians wanted their pope back in Rome and the appeals from Bridget of Sweden and Catherine of Siena played a major role in moving the papacy back to the Vatican. Pope Urban V returned to Rome from Avignon, but stayed only three years before returning to France. In 1377 A.D. pope Gregory XI returned to Rome, but died three years later. The papal states were in civil war and the Italians were in no mood for another French pope. They wanted an Italian. The French cardinals were intimidated enough to elect Archbishop of Bari pope Urban VI in 1378 A.D. This pope was too much for the French cardinals and they went home. In September of 1378, the French cardinals elected another pope Clement VII. Charles V, king of France recognized this newly elected pope and a schism occurred in the church that was to last for forty years. With the death of Urban VI came the Italian pope Boniface IX and following that in 1394 A.D. with the death of Clement VII the French elected Benedict XIII in Avignon. The two popes excommunicated each other and called for crusades against one another. Christendom suffered as a result of this political in-fighting. 
a. Three popes--at the Council of Pisa in 1409 A.D. the cardinals tried to find a solution to the problem of two existing popes. The two existing popes were deposed at this council and a new pope was elected Pope Alexander V. Now there were three because Benedict and Gregory refused to abdicate their thrones. The emperor of Germany charged John XXIII as successor to Alexander V to call for a new Council at Constance to resolve the dilemma. This Council lasted four years and on 1415 A.D. with the abdication of John XXIII, Gregory XII and deposition of Benedict XIII with the election of Martin V of 1417 A.D. At this council the cardinals and bishops affirmed that a Council has authority over the whole church, including the pope. The schism was over.
3. The conciliar crisis
a.  The Council of Basle--Pope Martin V convened a council in Pava in 1423 A.D. with the intent of church reform, especially of lowering the taxes. Another one was called in 1431 A.D. with the intent of trying to reconcile with the Greek church, but unsuccessful. 
See Handout #137
b. The Council of Florence (1439 A.D.)--the church of Constantinople was being threatened again by the Ottoman Turks and the emperor and the patriarch of the Eastern church attended with the view of getting the Western church to help defend them in battle. A decree of union was signed on July 6,1439 and the pope expressed his joy. This council had truly been ecumenical, but the union did not last long. The clergy accepted the agreement, but the people did not. The Turks invaded and Constantinople fell and all ties between the Eastern church and Western church died. The differences between the two churches continued to grow and each chose to ignore the other.
c. The pitfalls of Italian politics--all attempts at reform failed because the reigning popes were more interested in marrying off their illegitimate children and building palaces then they were concerned about Christendom. 
C. Human Problems
1. The evils of the age 
a. War, plague and death--throughout these two centuries calamities befell Europe in large doses. The Great Plague/Black Death ravaged Europe from 1347 A.D. until the end of the fourteenth century. One third of the population died. The Hundred Years War was still on. It was the troops that were killing each other from England and France, but the troops from both sides killed and plundered from the civilian populations leaving those alive to try and survive without food. Churches and clergy were not exempt from the plundering and death. People did not have time to mourn their dead because they feared so much for their lives. 
See Handout #138
b. Satan in the midst--with death ever so close people began to examine their own consciences. God punishes those whose sins deserve it and Europe thought they deserved all that was happening to them. This is the time when flagellants (self-torturers) traveled from town to town beating themselves until the blood flowed. Someone had to be responsible for these disastrous times and if it wasn't the flagellants then it must be the Jews. Even worse an enemy was SATAN roaming the earth in search of lost souls. This satanic fervor did not die down until the seventeenth century. He possessed men and women alike in the form of sorcerers and sorceresses. Torture extracted confessions and the burnings at the stake were at fever pitch.
2. The intellectual crisis--the happy balance of philosophy and theology was lost in the mind's of people.
a. Ockham--William of Ockham (1290-1350 A.D.), a Franciscan and friend of King Ludwig of Bavaria championed the role of the laity in the church. He maintained that one cannot reach God through reason and advocated the return to reading the Bible and lives of the saints.
b. Wyclif--John Wyclif (1324-1384 A.D.) a theologian from Oxford refused to believe in the eucharistic transubstantiation. He believed that when two popes fight over the tiara like dogs fighting over a bone then they were not worth a grain of salt and that the people were really the church with Christ as their only head.
See Handout #139
c. Hus--John Hus, (1369-1415 A.D.) a theologian from Prague, could not see any resemblance between the true church and the institution calling itself the church. The church was the people of God. He set out to reform the institutional church and get it to return to the gospel of poverty. He came up against the rich clergy and Pope John XXIII. When he went to France to defend himself the holy fathers executed him at the stake.
D. Changes in the Christian life--people disillusioned by the institutional church turned to personal experience of God over consultation with the clergy. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake during this time because she believed in hearing the Word of God in her head rather than through her bishop.
1. Quantitative piety--the cult of saints and their relics flourished more than ever. The practice of indulgences grew and could even be won in lotteries. Piety was measured quantitatively. Masses were piled up and "altar priests" spent their entire time saying masses in order to make a living.
See Handout #140
See Handout #141
2. A deepening in religion and mysticism--there was an emotional piety centered on the humanity of Jesus and Mary. One had to experience the suffering and pain of Christ, live with his anguish and death. It was a time of deepening one's awareness of their inner life and the beginnings of mysticism. Meister Echkhart(1260-1327 A.D.); Tauler (1300-1361 A.D.); and Suso (1295-1366 A.D.) all Dominicans were prime examples of the time. It was a quest for union with God, surpassing all attempts to explain it. The Imitation of Christ, written by Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471 A.D.) is a good example of the literature of the day.
E. Meanwhile, in the East...
1. The Council of Florence-- (1439 A.D.) directed our attention to the long forgotten Eastern Church. They didn't just die off, but continued on with their own rich traditions. 
a. Churches in the Slavonic world--the Bulgarian and Serbian churches wavered between Rome and Constantinople, but because of Methodius and Cyril they drew most of their inspiration from Constantinople. The Russian Church, an offshoot of the Greek Church, received its liturgy from  Constantinople and artistic standards and proclaimed its own Metropolitan of Moscow in 1448 A.D.
b. The end of the Byzantine empire--in 1453 A.D. Constantinople was overrun by Turks. The emperor Constantine was killed in the battle and the second Rome had fallen. Moscow now claimed to be the third Rome. 
See Handout #142
c. Eastern Spirituality--several common factors held the churches of Bulgaria, Serbia, Russia and Greece together: their monastically inspired spirituality and their artistic traditions, which is summed up in icons. The holy mountain of Athos was covered with monasteries representing all of the Orthodox nationalities. After staying at one of their respective monasteries the monks would return to their own country and it was quite usual for bishops and patriarchs to be chosen from them. Such saints as St. Gregory of Sinai & St. Theodosius (14th Century) from Bulgaria; St. Sava from Serbia; St. Sergius (1314-1392 A.D.) founder of the monastery of the Holy Trinity in the heart of the forests of Moscow and Gregory Palamas (1296-1359 A.D.) a monk from Athos who became Archbishop of Thessalonica. Many monasteries have preserved their mosaics, frescoes and icons to this day from the l4th and 15th centuries. 

Handouts
127 Philip the Fair versus Boniface VIII.  Philip becomes the rebellious king answerable to no one, not even the pope.
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128 Boniface VIII at the consistory of 1302 A.D.  Boniface flexes his muscles and reminds the French king, 'we've done it before and will do again'.
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129 The bull Unam Sanctam (1302). The pope rules all and is answerable only to God.  Kings must obey the pontiff.
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130 Accusation by Nogaret, lawyer of Philip the Fair, against Boniface VIII (1303 A.D.).  The king tried to dethrone the pope.
  See Full Text
131 Birth of the lay spirit.  The clergy are put on notice--"they are not the church".
See Full Text
132  Petrarch's invectives against Avignon.  A poet describes the decadence at Avignon.
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133 Catherine of Sienna asks Gregory XI to return to Rome.  She's a tough lady and lets Greg know he's really way out of line.
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134  The complaint of Lady Church, by the theologian Jean Petit in 1393 A.D., during the Great Schism.  A poet pokes fun at the number of popes running around.
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135 The decree Sacrosancta (6 April 1415 A.D.) of the Council of Constance.  A feeble attempt to repair the longstanding schism between the East and the West.
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136 The decree Frequens (9 October 1417 A.D.) of the Council of Constance.  An attempt to schedule regular councils of the church.
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137 Council of Florence: union with the Greeks (6 July 1439 A.D.)  The hierarchy of the East and West agree to end the schism, unfortunately, the people didn't.
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138 The Black Death (1347-1348 A.D.).  The plague hits Europe and one third of the population dies.
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139 John Hus (1369-1415 A.D.).  A very outspoken critic of the church and heretic burned at the stake.
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140   Meister Eckhart.  A Dominican philosopher talking about God.
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141  The Devotio Moderna: The Imitation of Christ.  An excerpt from Thomas a Kempis' book.
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142  The Jesus Prayer.  An Eastern monk composed this prayer. "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me!"
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Conclusion to Volume I